Jordanian Society Living Conditions in
the Hashemite Kingdom of
Jon Hanssen-Bauer, Jon Pedersen and
CONTENTS
© Fafo Institute for Applied Social Science 1998 ISBN 82-7422-217-2
Cover page: Premraj Sivasamy Cover photo: Are Hovdenak
Printed in Norway by: Falch Hurtigtrykk
Fafo
Institute for Applied Social Science P.O.Box 2947 Tøyen
N-0608 Oslo
http://www.fafo.no/engelsk/
CONTENTS
Authors:
Marie W. Arneberg Taleb Awad
David Drury Jon Hanssen-Bauer Laurie Blome Jacobsen Nawaf Kalaldeh Hiam Omar Kalimat Abdelhalim A. Kharabsheh Sa’ad Kharabseh
Sami Khoury
Issa Nassar
Jon Pedersen
Sara Randall
Teleb Abu Sharar
Siri Størmer
Åge A. Tiltnes
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The Jordan Living Conditions Survey The Project Team
Jordan Department of Statistics
Jordanian Academics Taleb Awad
Nawaf Kalaldeh Hiam Omar Kalimat Sa’ad Kharabsheh Sami Khoury Issa Nassar Teleb Abu Sharar
Fafo
Jon Hanssen-Bauer Jon Pedersen Åge A. Tiltnes David Drury Akram Atallah Ruba Saleh Atallah Dag H. Tuastad Rania Maktabi Marie W. Arneberg Laurie Blome Jacobsen Sara Randall
Siri Størmer Geir O. Pedersen Lena Endresen Jan Dietz Are Hovdnak Project National Director
Dr. Abdulhadi Alawin
Director General of Statistics
Abdallah Abdelaziz Zou’bi
Abdelhalim A. Kharabsheh Fahad Hiyari
Wajdi Akeel Fathi Nsour Ikhlas Aranki Kamal Al-Saleh Zeinab Dabbagh Khadija Dar Mousa Moustafa Salameh Mohammed Assaf Mohammed Jundi Abed Awadh Jamal Sa’addeen Alaa Neshawat
Project Executive Director, first phase
Project Executive Director, second phase
CONTENTS
Contents
Preface ... 9
List of Figures ... 12
List of Tables ... 21
List of Abbreviations ... 25
Arabic terms used ... 26
Chapter 1 Introduction: Jordan Living Conditions Survey ... 29
Introduction ... 29
The Concept of Living Conditions ... 30
Implementation of the Survey: A Phased Marathon ... 36
The JLCS data set ... 40
The JLCS reporting ... 41
The Content of the Report ... 42
Chapter 2 The Population of Jordan ... 51
Summary ... 51
Introduction ... 51
Age-Sex Structure ... 53
The measurement of fertility ... 62
Fertility ... 63
Mortality ... 81
Direct and indirect measures of mortality ... 82
Chapter 3 Housing and Infrastructure ... 97
Summary ... 97
The Dwelling ... 98
Neighbourhoods in the JLCS ... 100
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Chapter 4 Education ... 129
Summary ... 129
Introduction: Recent Education Reforms ... 130
The Educational Ladder in Jordan ... 132
Availability of Schools ... 133
Education in the General Population ... 134
Current Enrolment in Education ... 139
Parents’ Attitudes About Education ... 148
Report Card: Satisfaction Ratings and Some Suggestions for the Schools ... 158
Chapter 5 Health and Health Services ... 165
Summary ... 165
Introduction ... 166
Health Status ... 166
Self-Assessed General Health ... 167
Disease and illness ... 167
Health Services ... 186
Appendix 5.1: Logistic Regression on Self-Perceived Global Health ... 195
Chapter 6 Household Income and Wealth ... 197
Summary ... 197
The Distribution of Income ... 198
Economic Resources and Income ... 204
The Relation of Gender, Age and Education to Income ... 212
Determinants of Poverty ... 214
Economic Mobility ... 218
Household Wealth ... 220
Appendix 6.1 ... 223
Appendix 6.2 ... 224
Appendix 6.3 Logistic Regression on Poverty ... 225
Chapter 7 Work and Working Conditions ... 227
Summary ... 227
The Labour Force ... 228
How much do the economically active work? Employment, underemployment and unemployment. ... 236
The Activities of the Employed ... 243
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Work Environment ... 250
Job Training ... 255
Appendix 7.1 Logistic Regression on Labour Force Participation ... 256
Chapter 8 Social Network ... 259
Summary ... 259
Introduction ... 260
Close Networks: Family Life and Living With Relatives ... 262
Visiting Relatives: Expressing Closeness ... 276
Use of Clan or Village Institutions ... 280
Help and Support Among Family, Friends and Neighbours ... 282
Chapter 9 Attitudes and Public Life ... 293
Summary ... 293
Introduction ... 294
Public Participation ... 298
Women in Public Space ... 306
Attitudes Towards Western Influence ... 312
Appendix 9.1 Logistic Regression On Media Consumption ... 314
Chapter 10 Children and youth ... 315
Summary ... 315
Introduction ... 316
Prenatal Care ... 317
Delivery and Postnatal Care ... 320
Few Women Receive Postnatal Care ... 322
Birth Intervals ... 323
Short Spacings Most Common Among Young Women and Second - Third Children ... 325
Infant and Child Mortality ... 326
Trends in Infant and Child Mortality by Five-Year Periods ... 327
Improvements in Infant Mortality Rates Due Largely to Fewer Neonatal Deaths ... 327
Breast-Feeding Practices ... 334
Infant and Childhood Nutrition ... 337
Illness in Infants and Young Children ... 342
Caretaker of Young Children and Play Activities ... 344
The Family Environment for Children and Youth ... 344
Health Care for Children and Youth ... 349
Education and Dropouts ... 352
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Chapter 11 Living Conditions in Jordan:
a Holistic View ... 355
Living Conditions in Jordan: A Summary ... 355
Infrastructure and Income ... 359
How Are Living Conditions Structured? ... 361
A Map of Jordan ... 364
A Different Map of Jordan ... 367
Becoming Poor in Jordan ... 370
“Tradition” and “Modernity” ... 374
The Future ... 377
Conclusion ... 379
Appendix 1 The JLCS Sample ... 381
Summary ... 381
Requirements of the Sampling Design ... 381
First Stage Selection: Selection of PSUs ... 384
Third Stage Selection: Selection of Individuals From the Households ... 386
Unit Non-Response: The Household ... 390
Unit Non-Response: Individuals ... 392
Non-Response Adjustment ... 393
Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors ... 394
Non-Sampling Errors ... 394
Sampling Errors ... 395
Appendix 2 Some Notes on Statistical Methods ... 411
References ... 417
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Preface
In this publication, the living conditions of the population of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is portrayed. The analysis is based on the results from the Jordan Living Conditions Survey (JLCS). The survey has been implemented jointly by the Jordan Department of Statistics (DOS) and Fafo Institute of Applied Social Sciences, with Dr. Abdulhadi Alawin, Director General of DOS as the project’s National Director.
After consultations between the ministries of foreign affairs of Jordan and Norway in 1992, the authorities in the two countries agreed to cooperate on a study on living conditions in Jordan. The cooperation should pursue two sets of objec- tives. The first was to build a sustainable statistical capacity in Jordan to support the Government’s efforts in improving the living conditions of the population. The second objective was to produce the first set of high-quality, updated and policy- relevant analyses of living conditions of the Jordanian population, including the refugees and children, along a wide range of socio-economic and health indicators.
In February 1993, the Ministry of Planning on behalf of the Government of Jordan signed the project contract with Fafo in Amman. Fafo and the Jordan Department of Statistics started the implementation of the project in the second half of 1994, but the project really picked up momentum as the funding was secured in the middle of 1995. In January 1996, the Advisory Board for the project chaired by the Minister of Planning, gave its final approval of the questionnaire, and the fieldwork was launched the same month.
Canada joined the project at an early stage and concurred with Norway in providing the necessary funding for the project. Canada channeled their contribu- tion through their International Development Research Center (IDRC) and the CIDA. UNICEF in Amman has been the core local partner to the project, as the main part of the funding was provided from Norway as a contribution to UNICEF’s statistical program in Jordan.
A high number of local academics and professionals, as well as local and
international organizations and institutions have contributed to the project. Some
have taken part in the project’s technical committee or on its advisory board. Others
have participated in the workshops and seminars that have been held during the
project, or have been consulted by the researchers on a more informal basis. This
way, the project has become a true Jordanian one, and a cooperative research effort
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that has benefited from the insights and competence of close to two hundreds of professionals in the country.
The Jordan Department of Statistics has already issued a first report provid- ing the core tabulations of the results (DOS 1997). UNICEF has published the main findings concerning mothers and children in their country analysis (UNICEF 1997), and equally UNDP has made use of several indicators from the survey (UNDP 1997). Fafo has presented the results concerning Palestinian refugees and displaced persons in a separate report (Arneberg 1997). It is with great pride that we hereby introduce in-depth analysis of the results that completes the reporting from the project. It is our hope that this book will serve as a baseline for future studies of Jordanian living conditions.
We would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to the Government of Jordan for inviting us to do the present study, and in particular to His Royal Highness Crown Prince Hassan for his interest and support. We are thank- ful to Her Excellency Dr. Rima Khalaf, Minister of Planning, for her encourage- ment and follow-up. She has chaired the project’s Advisory Board on behalf of the Government. We have enjoyed generous hospitality during our frequent visits to the country.
We are profoundly indebted to Dr. Abdulhadi Alawin, Director General of the Department of Statistics, for his efforts to guide the project to a successful end, and to all his staff for their collegial and professional work. The DOS team was directed first by Dr. Abdallah Abdelaziz Zou’bi and later by Mr. Abdelhalim Kharabsheh. A full list of our contributing colleagues is given overleaf. We would like to commend the Department of Statistics for the outstanding work it has de- livered in the implementation of the fieldwork and for the resulting quality of the data set.
We are thankful to Dr. Hussein Shakhatreh, Director for the Human Reso- urces Planning Department in the Ministry of Planning, for his kind support during the initial phases of the project. The positive support from the Department for Refugee Issues and Mr. Abdelkarim Abulhaija has been of great help.
We also thank the Governments of Norway and Canada for financial sup-
port and encouragement. We have enjoyed the cooperation with the Middle East
Desk in Oslo, and we have always felt welcome and supported by the Norwegian
and the Canadian embassies in Amman. Tove S. Kijewski always kept her embassy
and residence open to us and shared emphatically our high spirits as well as more
taxing moments. We are grateful to our partners and friends in IDRC and UNICEF
Amman for their day to day follow-up, their project steering and professional con-
tributions. In particular we would like to mention Area Representative Dorrit Ale-
opaeus-Ståhl and her predecessor Victoria Rialp, as well as Program Officer
Dr. Ayman A. Abulaban and Senior Programme Assistant Mrs. Muna Idriz. We are
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also deeply grateful to Senior Programme Officer Dr. Anwar Islam in IDRC for his interested and valuable contributions.
Our very special thanks go to our eight Jordanian colleagues. They delivered the first drafts on very short time, and contributed substantially to the quality of this report. We are very happy for the trustful relationship we have experienced with colleagues in Jordan, that, in the end, made this cooperation possible across national, institutional and professional borders.
On the Fafo side, the project has been directed by Research Director Jon Hanssen-Bauer. Through dedicated and hard work he has contributed to the high professional standard of the project. Researcher Åge A. Tiltnes has been a dedicat- ed, stable and able contributor all over the project’s lifetime. Research Director Jon Pedersen is to be credited for raising the quality of the survey to high professional standards through his invaluable input to almost all areas. We thank Ms. Ruba Atallah who made a tremendous job as project assistant in the critical phases of the study, as well as Coordinator Akram Atallah for his highly professional input. The Publication Department at Fafo, and in particular Premraj Sivasamy, must be com- mended for a very demanding work of editing the manuscript for printing.
Lastly, we would like to mention our former Director General Terje Rød- Larsen, who designed the project at the outset and made the necessary contacts in Jordan, and former head of the Center for International Studies, Geir O. Pedersen, who backed the launching of the project work in 1993.
In spite of all contributions and support, it goes without saying that any error or misunderstanding in this report is the sole responsibility of Fafo and the editors.
Oslo, April 1998 Arne Grønningsæter Managing Director
Center for International Studies, Fafo
CONTENTS
List of Figures
Chapter 1 Introduction: Jordan Living Conditions Survey
Figure 1.1 Measures of living conditions ... 31
Figure 1.2 Measures of living conditions ... 32
Figure 1.3 Modules or dimensions of the living conditions survey ... 34
Figure 1.4 The JLCS schedule and main milestones ... 37
Figure 1.5 JLCS: Six reporting domains ... 38
Chapter 2 The Population of Jordan
Figure 2.1 Size of the population in Jordan are census years. Other years are estimates. ... 52Figure 2.2 Age and sex structure ... 53
Figure 2.3 Sex ratios ... 55
Figure 2.4 Marital status by age, women ... 56
Figure 2.5 Marital status by age, men ... 57
Figure 2.6 Mean age at marriage ... 58
Figure 2.7 Proportions of women single by age ... 58
Figure 2.8 Proportions women single at time of the survey and 10 years earlier ... 59
Figure 2.9 Proportions men single at time of the survey and 10 years earlier ... 59
Figure 2.10 Mean age at first marriage according to education ... 60
Figure 2.11 Proportions of women single by education ... 61
Figure 2.12 Proportions of women single by education 10 years before survey ... 61
Figure 2.13 Mean age at marriage according to labour force status ... 62
Figure 2.14 Proportions single by labour force status ... 62
Figure 2.15 Total fertility rates 1985-95 ... 65
Figure 2.16 Age specific fertility rates 1985-95 ... 65
Figure 2.17 Total fertility 1995 and completed parity by region and socioeconomic characteristics ... 66
Figure 2.18 Recent estimates of Total Fertility Rates in Arab countries. ... 68
Figure 2.19 Reported parity for males and females ... 69
Figure 2.20 Male fertility rates ... 71
Figure 2.21 Male parity by educational achievement ... 71
Figure 2.22 Ideal family size by gender of respondent ... 71
Figure 2.23 Ideal family size by education, women ... 72
Figure 2.24 Ideal family size by education, men ... 73
Figure 2.26 Life expectancy at age 20 from orphanhood and widowhood data. ... 84
CONTENTS
Figure 2.27: Life expectancy at age 20 from orphanhood and widowhood data. ... 84
Figure 2.28 Percentage of governorate residents born in governorate by age ... 86
Figure 2.29: Percentage of governorate residents born in West Bank, the Gaza Strip or Israel ... 87
Figure 2.30 Percentage of governorate residents by residence 5 years previously ... 88
Figure 2.31 Age specific migration rates in last 5 years: all movements by sex ... 89
Figure 2.32 Main activity in place of migration ... 89
Figure 2.33: Age specific migration rates: females by movement since 1991 ... 90
Figure 2.34 Age specific migration rates: males by movement since 1991 ... 90
Figure 2.35 Working male migrants and total population by education ... 91
Figure 2.36 Female age structure of relatives abroad ... 92
Figure 2.37 Male age structure of relatives abroad ... 93
Figure 2.38 Residence country of relatives abroad ... 00
Figure 2.39 Female relatives: main reason for being overseas by region ... 95
Figure 2.40 Male relatives: main reason for being overseas by region ... 96
Chapter 3 Housing and Infrastructure
Figure 3.1 Percentage of households in different types of dwelling, by neighbourhood ... 99Figure 3.2 Main housing types by region ... 101
Figure 3.3 Owning and renting: Percentage of households by type of dwelling ... 103
Figure 3.4 Owning and renting: Percentage of households by income group ... 103
Figure 3.5 Persons per room and per room used for sleeping by size of household ... 106
Figure 3.6 Percent of households with housing and sanitation amenities, by Urban/ rural location ... 107
Figure 3.7 Number of amenities by type of dwelling, neighbourhood and family ... 109
Figure 3.8 Nuisances and disturbances in the indoor environment. Percentage of all households ... 111
Figure 3.9 Energy sources used for room and water heating ... 112
Figure 3.10 Percentage of households with access to local services, by neighbourhood Figure 3.11 Percent of households exposed to outdoor pollution, by neighbourhood ... 117
Figure 3.12 Satisfaction with the Dwelling ... 120
Figure 3.13 General satisfaction with housing, by type of dwelling, income, refugee camp, and overcrowding ... 121
Figure 3.14 Satisfaction with the neighbourhood ... 122
Figure 3.15 Going places: Groups with high proportions of households who plan to move ... 125
Figure 3.16 Reasons for moving within the area, or to another area ... 126
Figure 3.17 Destinations of urban and rural households planning to move out of their home areas ... 127
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Chapter 4 Education
Figure 4.1 Percentage of households in walking distance of schools ... 133
Figure 4.2 Satisfaction with availability of schools in the neighbourhood ... 134
Figure 4.3 People ever enrolled in school, by age group, sex and urban-rural ... 135
Figure 4.4 Illiteracy by age group, sex and urban-rural ... 136
Figure 4.5 Highest level of education completed or currently enrolled ... 138
Figure 4.6 Distribution of currently enrolled students by level and sex ... 140
Figure 4.7 Secondary school enrolment in the Academic and Vocational streams ... 141
Figure 4.8 Distribution of students by type of school and level ... 142
Figure 4.9 Type of basic school attended, by income group ... 143
Figure 4.10 Students who are enrolled or have completed Basic school (age 6-16) or Secondary school (age 17-18): Percentage by age and other measures ... 145
Figure 4.11 Reasons for not being enrolled in school ... 146
Figure 4.12 Do you expect your child to complete Basic school? ... 149
Figure 4.13 Expectations for the child after completing the Basic cycle ... 150
Figure 4.14 Parents’ preferences for vocational vs. academic secondary school ... 151
Figure 4.15 Main reason for preferring Academic or Vocational secondary education: Parents who expect their children to attend secondary school .. 152
Figure 4.16 Expectations about the highest level of school the child will reach ... 155
Figure 4.17 Support for women’s education, and expectations about children’s highest education level (If going on to secondary school: ... 156
Figure 4.18 Where higher education was completed, by sex (B.A., M.A., Ph.D.), High Diploma ... 157
Figure 4.19 Satisfaction with the development of public schools: All randomly selected individuals ... 158
Figure 4.20 Quality of education in the school your child now attends: Parents with children in Basic school ... 159
Figure 4.21 Parents’ opinions about improvements needed in their child’s Basic school .... 161
Chapter 5 Health and Health Services
Figure 5.1 Self-assessed general health by sex of respondent ... 169Figure 5.2 Self-perceived good and bad health by sex and age ... 170
Figure 5.3 Individuals stating that their health is ‘very good’ by selected characteristics: chronic health problems, smoking habits, indoor housing conditions, level of education, yearly household income, and type of residential area ... 171
Figure 5.4 Prevalence of prolonged illness and injury according to geographic region, type of residential area, Palestinian refugee status and yearly household income; all household members ... 173
Figure 5.5 Prevalence of prolonged illness and injury according to ten-year age groups; entire surveyed population ... 174
Figure 5.6 Adults’ ability to perform certain everyday activities ... 175
Figure 5.7 Difficulties in performing everyday life activities, according to sex and yearly household income , and labour force participation ... 176
CONTENTS
Figure 5.8 Smoking habits by sex: regularity of smoking; average number of cigarettes smoked daily among regular smokers; and average age when started smoking ... 177 Figure 5.9 Prevalence of regular smokers by sex and age groups; RSI 15 years or older ... 178 Figure 5.10 The adult population according to seven indicators of
psychological distress ... 180 Figure 5.11 Men and women according to the reported number
of symptoms of psychological distress ... 181 Figure 5.12 Individuals of three income groups according to the
reported number of symptoms of psychological distress; RSI 15 years or older ... 181 Figure 5.13 Prevalence of acute and severe acute illness or injury. ‘Severe’ is defined as
preventing the person from carrying out normal duties ... 182 Figure 5.14 Place of consultation following acute illness or injury by Palestinian
refugee status, yearly household income and health insurance coverage ... 183 Figure 5.15 Reason for not seeking professional help during acute
illness or injury by yearly household income ... 184 Figure 5.16 Cost per consultation by yearly household income,
type of place consulted and health insurance coverage ... 185 Figure 5.17 Cost for medication by yearly household income,
type of place consulted and health insurance coverage ... 185 Figure 5.18 Households with various health services within five to ten minutes walking
distance from dwelling by urban rural status ... 187 Figure 5.19 Households with at least one health centre, hospital or
physician within five to ten minutes walking distance from dwelling
by type of residential area ... 187 Figure 5.20 Households with certain health services within five to ten
minutes walking distance from dwelling by geographic region ... 188 Figure 5.21 Individuals covered by health insurance, by type of insurance ... 190 Figure 5.22 Health insurance coverage by type of insurance and geographic region ... 190 Figure 5.23 Individuals’ health insurance coverage by type of insurance, and according to
urban-rural status, Palestinian refugee status, and yearly household income ... 191 Figure 5.24 Households’ satisfaction with local health services, according to whether they
have any health centre or physician or not within their immediate living area ... 192 Figure 5.25 Respondents stating that the public health system has developed poorly, by
highest level of education completed ... 193 Figure 5.26 Respondents saying that the public health system has developed
excellently, by level of satisfaction with local health facilities ... 193 Figure 5.27 Households’ opinion about treatment and service given by selected health
institutions following acute illness or injury ... 194
Chapter 6 Household Income and Wealth
Figure 6.1 Distribution of annual household income ... 198 Figure 6.2 Cummulative distribution of annual household income by household’s ... 199 Figure 6.3 Percentage of households with annual
income less than 1450 JD, by household income sources. ... 200
CONTENTS
Figure 6.4 Supplementary income sources. ... 201 Figure 6.5 Cummulative distribution of annual household income by
sex of household head ... 202 Figure 6.6 Cummulative distribution of annual household income by
refugee status and nationality ... 203 Figure 6.7 Cummulative distribution of annual household income by
labour market status of household main provider in household ... 207 Figure 6.8 Cummulative distribution of annual household
income by industry of main provider in household ... 209 Figure 6.9 Cummulative distribution of annual household income by
education of household head ... 211 Figure 6.10 Percent of households with annual income less than JD 1450,
by sex, age and education of household head ... 213 Figure 6.11 Percent of low-income hoseholds who consider themselves as poor ... 215 Figure 6.12 Reported change in household income from 1994 to 1995 ... 218 Figure 6.13 Reported change in household income from 1994 to 1995,
by employment industry of main provider ... 219 Figure 6.14 Reported change in household income from 1994 to 1995,
by main household’s income source and domain ... 219 Figure 6.15 Expectations for the future among the poor, by education of
head of household ... 220 Figure 6.16 Ownership of capital and durable goods, by household income ... 221
Chapter 7 Work and Working Conditions
Figure 7.1 Labour force categorisation by sex. Percent of total population ... 230 Figure 7.2 Labour force participation by sex, age and education ... 231 Figure 7.3 Labour force participation by sex, age and marital status ... 232 Figure 7.4 Labour force participation rates among women by age,
education and marital status ... 232 Figure 7.5 Labour force participation by nationality and refugee status.
Percent of persons 15 years of age and above ... 233 Figure 7.6 Reasons for not working. Percent of men 15 years of
age and above who are outside the labour force, by their main activity ... 235 Figure 7.7 Reasons for not working. Percent of women 15 years of age and
above who are outside the labour force, by their main activity ... 235 Figure 7.8 Gender-specific employment rates. Percent of persons in the labour force ... 237 Figure 7.9 Employment and unemployment by marital status. Percent of persons in the Figure 7.10 Unemployment and part time employment by selected
individual characteristics. Percent of persons in the labour force ... 240 Figure 7.11 Reasons for being unemployed. Percent of unemployed men by education .... 241 Figure 7.12 Reasons for being unemployed. Percent of unemployed women by education 241 Figure 7.13 Employment status. Percent of employed persons by education and sex ... 243 Figure 7.14 Industry structure for men. Percent of employed men by education ... 245
CONTENTS
Figure 7.15 Industry structure for women. Percent of employed women by education ... 246
Figure 7.16 Industry structure by refugee status and citizenship. Men ... 246
Figure 7.17 Industry structure by refugee status and citizenship. Women ... 247
Figure 7.18 Occupational structure for men. Percent of employed men by education ... 248
Figure 7.19 Occupational structure for women. Percent of employed women by education ... 248
Figure 7.20 Occupational structure for men, by refugee status and nationality ... 249
Figure 7.21 Occupational structure for women, by refugee status and nationality ... 249
Figure 7.22 Distribution of actual weekly working hours in all jobs. Percent of employed persons ... 250
Figure 7.23 Percent of employed persons with irregular working hours, by industry and employment status ... 252
Figure 7.24 Clustering of bad working conditions. Cumulative percent of employed persons by number of hazards and industry ... 253
Figure 7.25 Job training ... 254
Figure 7.26 Person or institution who paid for the training. Percent of those who
Chapter 8 Social Network
Figure 8.1 Extended, nuclear and single person households by type of neighbourhood, domain, and sex and age of household head ... 264Figure 8.2 Households having family and relatives nearby, by type of neighbourhood, domain, sex and age of household head, if head of household lived same place or elsewhere 5 years ago ... 265
Figure 8.3 Categories of relatives living nearby by sex of spouses, in percent of the house- holds having the category of relatives living nearby ... 267
Figure 8.4 Lineal and collateral relatives of both spouses living nearby ... 268
Figure 8.5 Type of network: Lineal and collateral relatives, in percent of the households in the category. ... 269
Figure 8.6: Size of local household networks ... 270
Figure 8.7 The village household network: Many relatives and both lineal and collateral relatives. ... 271
Figure 8.8 Satisfaction with distance to relatives and friends. ... 272
Figure 8.9 Unsatisfied with the distance to relatives. ... 273
Figure 8.10 Visits with relatives during last two weeks ... 277
Figure 8.11 Respondents with visits last two weeks, by sex, age group, position in the household, types of relatives living nearby, size of household network nearby and reporting domain ... 278
Figure 8.12 Respondents with daily visits last two weeks, in percent, by sex, age group, position in the household, types of relatives living nearby, size of household network nearby and reporting domain. ... 279
Figure 8.13 Visits among relatives by type of neighbourhood, in percent of the population living in each type of neighbourhood ... 279
Figure 8.14 Attendance to gatherings in and outside of the diwan and rabita, by type of gathering. ... 281
CONTENTS
Figure 8.15 Help given and received, by kind of help and status of other person. ... 282 Figure 8.16 Givers, exchangers and receivers of help, by sex. ... 287 Figure 8.17 Givers, exchangers and receivers of help, by age group ... 287 Figure 8.18 Receivers, exchangers and givers of help, by level of
completed education ... 288 Figure 8.19 Receivers, exchangers and givers of help, by income group ... 288 Figure 8.20 Financial help and transfers given and received during the last year,
by income groups ... 289 Figure 8.21 Households receiving remittances from relatives and households receiving
retirement pensions and/or social security from the Government, by importance as income source ... 290
Chapter 9 Attitudes and Public Life
Figure 9.1 Persons 15 years and above who received news from any newspaper, radio, or TV the day preceding the interview by various characteristics:
sex, highest level of education completed, yearly household income,
and broad age groups ... 296 Figure 9.2 Newspaper consumption. Number of newspapers read the day prior to the
interview, by sex, highest level of education and yearly household income ... 297 Figure 9.3 Consumption of non-Jordanian radio and television news the
day prior to the interview, by nationality of source ... 297 Figure 9.4 Persons 20 years or more who have ever voted in local or
national elections by age groups, Palestinian refugee status, governorate,
organisational membership and news consumption ... 299 Figure 9.5 Persons 20 years or more who have ever campaigned for a
candidate in local or national elections by sex, age groups, education, Palestinian refugee status, news consumption, organisational membership and voting ... 301 Figure 9.7 Respondent’s hamulah or ashira or village has a guesthouse;
by urban-rural status, governorate and Palestinian refugee status ... 304 Figure 9.8 Persons 15 years or older who attended at least one political
meeting during the 12 months preceding the interview; by sex, age groups, highest level of education completed, Palestinian refugee status, news
consumption, organisational membership, ever voted, and ever campaigned ... 306 Figure 9.9 Individuals 15 years or older who are opposed to women doing the
following activities: participate in voluntary social work, vote, be a member
of a local council, be a minister or parliamentarian ... 308 Figure 9.10 Views on women’s public participation by age groups and sex. ... 308 Figure 9.11 Women who can go alone, with company, or can not go to certain
places: study abroad, visit relatives abroad, visit relatives outside of town,
visit relatives in town, go to a doctor, go to the local market, and visit neighbours ... 310 Figure 9.12 Freedom of movement and public participation. ... 311 Figure 9.13 Freedom of movement and women’s views on women’s
public participation ... 312 Figure 9.14 Opinions about influence from the developed countries. ... 313
CONTENTS
Chapter 10 Children and youth
Figure 10.1 Prenatal health care during last pregnancy by income ... 317
Figure 10.2 Prenatal health care during last pregnancy by urban or rural status ... 318
Figure 10.3 Number of health visits during last pregnancy by mother’s education ... 319
Figure 10.4 Month of first visit by mother’s education, latest pregnancy ... 319
Figure 10.5 Tetanus injection during pregnancy by household yearly income ... 320
Figure 10.6 Delivery location for 2 most recent births (1991-96) ... 320
Figure 10.7 Location of delivery and delivery assistance for 2 latest births by background variables (1991-96) ... 322
Figure 10.8 Cumulative percent of birth intervals for 10 and 5 years preceding survey compared to all years. (1986-96) n=8726, (1991-96) n=4552, n=19351 ... 324
Figure 10.9 Median birth intervals by background characteristics (1985-90 compared to 1991-96) ... 324
Figure10.10 Birth intervals in months by background characteristics (1991-96). ... 325
Figure 10.11 Infant and child mortality by 5-year groups. ... 327
Figure 10.12 Component measures of total under-5 mortality by 5-year groups. ... 328
Figure 10.13 Infant and child mortality by socio-economic characteristics (1990-94) ... 332
Figure 10.14 Percent of births with low birth weights by background variables, latest 2 births ... 333
Figure 10.15 Duration of breast-feeding - 2 most recent births ... 335
Figure 10.16 Duration child breast-fed by mother’s education ... 336
Figure 10.17 Stunting in children aged 12-59 months by background characteristics ... 340
Figure 10.18 Completed vaccination among 1, 1.5, 2 and 3-year-olds ... 341
Figure 10.19 Type of illness in children who had illness during the last two weeks (children under 5 years) ... 342
Figure 10.20 Household size by household head and urban/rural ... 345
Figure 10.21 The general crowding index (GCI) among children 0-15 years of age by age groups ... 346
Figure 10.22 The general crowding index (GCI) among children 0-15 years of age by location ... 347
Figure 10.23 The general crowding index (GCI) among children 0-15 years of age by household yearly income ... 347
Figure 10.24 The distribution of GCI by smoke inside houses and illness among children Figure 10.25 The GCI by noise inside the building among children 0-15 years of age ... 348
Figure 10.26 The GCI and acute illness of children 5-15 years of age ... 349
Figure 10.27 Children’s leisure activities by income group ... 351
Figure 10.28 Time spent in front of TV the day before interview. Children aged 5 years to 15 ... 352
CONTENTS
Chapter 11 Living Conditions in Jordan:
a Holistic View
Figure 11.1 Geographical distribution of key individual living condition
characteristics in Jordan. ... 364 Figure 11.2 Geographical distribution of key household living condition
characteristics in Jordan. ... 365 Figure 11.3 Category score correspondence plot of household socio economic
adaptations in Jordan. ... 368 Figure 11.4 Object score correspondence plot of household socio
economic adaptations in Jordan. ... 369 Figure 11.5 CHAID classification tree of “Ability to raise JD100”. ... 372 Figure 11.6 Frequency of different residence five years ago by household
income groups. ... 373 Figure 11.7 Correspondence plot of cultural configurations in Jordan ... 375 Figure 11.8 Development of population structure of Jordan. 1995-2010 ... 377
Appendix 1
Figure A1.1 JLCS sample number of households compared to total number of households 382
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List of Tables
Chapter 2 The Population of Jordan
Table 2.1 Dependency ratios by region, household characteristics ... 54
Table 2.2 Jordan Total Fertility 1976-1996. From selected surveys ... 64
Table 2.4 Total Fertility 1976 & 1996, by education of women ... 66
Table 2.5 Contraceptive use by ideal family size: men and women ... 74
Table 2.6 Discussion with spouse about desired number of children by reported contraceptive use ... 75
Table 2.7 Bongaarts indices for Jordan- 1976 and 1996 ... 76
Table 2.8: Breastfeeding patterns- 1976 and 1996 ... 78
Table 2.9 Bongaarts indices for Arab countries with moderate fertility ... 78
Table 2.10 Bongaarts indices by region and socioeconomic subgroup ... 79
Table 2.11 Percent distribution of births born since 1.1.91 by preceding birth interval ... 80
Table2.12 Infant mortality (1q0) and child mortality (5q0) by selected characteristics: 1990-95 ... 81
Table 2.13 Proportions never widowed by age ... 83
Table 2.14 Life expectancy at birth (e0); JLCS and other sources ... 85
Chapter 3 Housing and Infrastructure
Table 3.1 Number of rooms in the living quarters, and rooms used for sleepingChapter 4 Education
Table 4.1 Illiteracy (did not attend Basic school) by sex, 1961 to 1995 ... 136Table 4.2 Gross enrolment by school cycle and sex, 1992-93 and 1995-96 ... 145
Chapter 6 Household Income and Wealth
Table 6.1 Characteristics of households whose main income source is transfer income, versus households whose main income source is employment ... 201Table 6.2 Distribution of annual total household income ... 204
Table 6.3 Characteristics of low-income households versus high-income households ... 205
Table 6.4 Characteristics of the households by employment status of main provider in the household ... 208
Table 6.5 The relationship between sex and age, health, education and household size ... 213
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Chapter 7 Work and Working Conditions
Table 7.1 The labour force of Jordan ... 229 Table 7.2 Gender- and domain specific labour force participation rates ... 233 Table 7.3 Gender specific unemployment rates in Jordan, 1991-1996.
In percent of the labour force ... 237 Table 7.4 Types of labour under-utilisation ... 238 Table 7.5 The structure of employment ... 244 Table 7.6 The structure of employment ... 247 Table 7.7 Industry composition by occupation ... 247 Table 7.8 Average weekly work hours by industry and employment status in main job ... 251
Chapter 8 Social Network
Table 8.1 Household types, in percent of all households ... 263 Table 8.2 Types and size of household networks ... 270 Table 8.3 Relation to latest husband, in percent of all marriages ... 273 Table 8.4 First marriage preference by education ... 274 Table 8.5 Locality and endogamy by refugee status ... 275 Table 8.6 Help and transfers to relatives and friends, by givers and receivers ... 283 Table 8.7 Givers and receivers of help, by categories of others ... 283 Table 8.8 Types of support given and received during the last
two weeks, by categories of others. In percent of all respondents ... 285 Table 8.9 Reasons for financial help or transfers in cash or in kind given to
or received from relatives during the last twelve months ... 286 Table 8.10 Households receiving remittances from relatives ... 290
Chapter 9 Attitudes and Public Life
Table 9.1 Views on women’s public participation according to
various background variables ... 309
Chapter 10 Children and youth
Table 10.1 Infant and child mortality by demographic characteristics (1990-94). ... 330 Table 10.2 Malnourishment in children 12-59 months by background characteristics ... 338 Table 10.4 Household size among the children 0-15 years of age ... 345 Table 10.5 Reason for dropping out by household income. ... 353 Table 10.6 Reason for dropping out by household head education level ... 353
Chapter 11 Living Conditions in Jordan:
a Holistic View
Table 11.1 Basic social indicators for Jordan as revealed by the JLCS ... 356 Table 11.2 Individual living condition components by Urban-Rural status ... 366 Table 11.3 Living condition characteristics of the household by geographical divisions ... 366 Table 11.4 Percentage of population in different age groups, 1995-2010 ... 378
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Appendix 1
Table A1.1 Respondents in JLCS ... 383 Table A1.2 Notation ... 387 Table A1.3 Non-response categories in JLCS ... 390 Table A1.4 Non-response rates in JLCS ... 391 Table A1.5 Response rates for sub groups in the survey ... 392 Table A1.6 Notation for non-response adjustment ... 393 Table A1.7 Sampling errors for selected household variables ... 397 Table A1.8 Sampling errors for selected variables pertaining to individuals ... 403
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List of Abbreviations
DHS Demography and Health Survey
DOS Jordan Department of Statistics DPT Diphteria- Pertussis- Tetanus vaccine
ESCWA United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
GCI General Crowding Index
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit HSCL Hopkins Symptoms Check-List
HUDC Housing and Urban Development Corporation, Jordan IDRC International Development Research Center, Canada ILO International Labour Office
JD Jordanian Dinar (approximately USD 0.7) JFS Jordan Fertility Survey
JLCS Jordan Living Conditions Survey
JPFHS Jordan Population and Family Health Survey (1990) MENA Middle East and North Africa Economic Conference MOP Ministry of Planning, Jordan
ODA British Overseas Development Agency
PSU Primary Sampling Unit
SCI Sleeping Crowding Index
TFR Total Fertility Rate
TOS Temporary Out of Scope (sampling)
TV Television
UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNRWA United Nations Relief and Work Agency for Palestinien Refugees in the Near East
WHO World Health Organization
WHO/CDC World Health Organization/ Centers for Disease Control
CHAPTER 1
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Arabic terms used
(Approximate meaning in English)
‘Amm Father’s brother
‘AmmA Father’s sister
‘Asabiya Closeness or solidarity, used in the context of village
Ab Father
Akh Brother
‘Ard Honour
Ashira Descent group, clan or segment of a clan
Bint Daughter
Bint ‘amm Father’s brother’s daughter Bint ‘amma Father’s sister’s daughter Bint khâl Mother’s brother’s daughter Bint khâla Mother’s sister’s daughter Dar Traditional house, household
Dinar Jordanian currency unit (Jordanian Dinar or JD), exchanged at the rate of USD 0.7
Diwan Guesthouse or clan or village institution used for social gatherings and family politics
Diwaniyya In Kuwait used for a traditional, semi-public gathering taking place in the home
Dunum 1,000 square metres
Governorate Major administrative unit in Jordan
Hakura Garden plot used for growing vegetables, kitchen garden Hamulah Descent group, clan or segment of a clan
Hara Neighbourhood
Ibn Son
Ibn ‘amm Father’s brother’s son Ibn ‘amma Father’s sister’s son Ibn khâl Mother’s brother’s son Ibn khâla Mother’s sister’s son
Jaha Delegation of notables; institution used for example to ask for a bride or to resolve an inter-tribal conflict
Jam’iyya Traditional form of savings, saving clubs
Khâl Mother’s brother
Khâla Mother’s sister
Nasib Father-in-law
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Nasibã Used for in-laws in general
Rabita Guesthouse or clan or village institution used for social gatherings and family politics
Ramadan The Muslim holy month of fasting
Ukht Sister
Umm Mother
Village Used to refer to the localisation pattern based on closeness and family (clan) relationships
Zawj Husband
Zawja Wife
CONTENTS CHAPTER 1
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Jon Hanssen-Bauer and Abdelhalim Kharabsheh
Chapter 1 Introduction: The Jordan Living Conditions Survey
Introduction
In this report, the main results from the Jordan Living Conditions Survey (JLCS) are analysed and presented. It offers an overview of the living conditions of the population of Jordan, as seen through interviews with a representative sample of 6,000 households from all over the country. These interviews were conducted dur- ing the first quarter of 1996. To date, the survey is the most comprehensive attempt made in Jordan to describe the living conditions of individuals and households along all major dimensions in one single analytical operation. In that sense, the present study is intended as a baseline that summarises the situation in 1996 and on which future studies can build.
Since Jordan acquired its independence in 1946, the country’s history and development has been intimately influenced by the Israeli-Arab conflict and the various wars that the Middle East has endured over the past half century. Following the 1948 war, the country became host to a huge number of Palestinian refugees.
The West Bank was annexed and united with the East Bank in 1950, and all West Bankers were given full Jordanian citizenship and representation in the Parliament.
As a result of the 1967 Israeli-Arab war, Jordan lost the West Bank to Israel and received a new wave of refugees and so-called “displaced” from the Occupied Territories. Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the subsequent war, large numbers of work migrants to the Gulf States were expelled and returned. This occasioned the third major population influx into Jordan. Jordan agreed to send a joint Jordanian and Palestinian delegation to the Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in 1991 and became the second Arab country after Egypt to sign peace with Israel three years later. According to the 1994 census, the population totalled 4.2 million persons, and the JLCS shows that 44 percent of the population consisted of Palestinian refugees and displaced in 1996.
In the midst of the turmoil of international politics, Jordan has been build- ing its democratic institutions and the country has experienced significant economic development. Measured by the most commonly used indicators of social and eco- nomic welfare, Jordan fares well when compared to other countries.
CHAPTER 2
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The overwhelming majority of the population has access to basic infrastructure like safe water, sanitation and electricity. Although the housing standard appears mod- est on average and the majority of the families are living under crowded conditions, there is little evidence of precarious housing and squatter-like areas. The education system has been given priority, and it currently provides the young generation, girls and boys alike, with access to primary and secondary schooling.
While half of the households report that they have an annual income of less than approximately JD 2000, only one percent report that they earn more than JD 9600, and around 20 percent seem to be economically vulnerable. Even though total fertility rates are still fairly high, at 4.3 in 1995, they are falling. Life expectancy has risen in recent years, and now stands at around 70 years. Infant and child mor- tality has fallen, and under-5 mortality is now at 32 deaths per 1,000 births, which is lower than the average for other middle-income economies (39 in 1995). The study finds some indications of malnutrition of children.
This report undertakes a systematic and detailed account of the situation as per 1996. Before presenting the various contributions to the report, we will describe the conceptual bases for the study and provide some background information about the survey and the data set.
The Concept of Living Conditions
The concept of ‘living conditions’ (NOU 1993, Ringen 1997) has guided this sur- vey. In the following, we will explore this concept through making four observa- tions: The first observation is that in studying welfare and the distribution of wel- fare in a society we need to distinguish between subjective satisfaction and some observable “reality”. Second, the concept of living conditions is constructed on a notion of choice and of equality of access to resources. The third point concerns the multidimensional nature of the measures. Lastly, we will discuss the issue of defining the unit of observation when measuring living conditions.
Living Conditions and Quality of Life
In studies of social phenomena, we face the problem that conditions are experienced
by individuals, and individuals differ in their perception and evaluation of the con-
ditions under which they are living their lives. Two individuals may experience the
same conditions of life very differently. We all know that what may be acceptable
to some is experienced as sub-standard by others; this may lead to quite different
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subjective levels of satisfaction for the two. The conditions under which our lives unfold are interpreted and coloured by our individual aspirations for a good life, by our experience and by our expectations. What is good housing for one family may be unacceptable to others, even if the two families seem to have the same basic needs.
One tradition within this field of research tries primarily to measure the subjective satisfaction that individuals are able to draw from life. We call this the Quality of Life tradition. Researchers within this tradition are concerned about how the constitution of the personality and the self interact with external structures to produce a sense of quality of life.
The Living Conditions tradition takes another approach, putting most emphasis on the mapping of more easily observable conditions, although the respondents’ evaluations of the living conditions also form part of what is being surveyed. One reason for this emphasis is that the results are better suited for mak- ing policy. Policy makers are more concerned about observable conditions than about the satisfaction that an individual may derive from them. Taste and aspira- tions differ, and we cannot reasonably make choices on behalf of others. Individu- als should be left to make their own choices. Rather, policy makers should limit themselves to issues that seem to be similarly interpreted across broad segments of the population and focus on improving conditions that most people would agree are sub-standard. There are two reasons for this. The first is the problem of meas- uring individual satisfaction. The other is that individual values – such as satisfac- tion – belong to the domain of the political process itself.
However, this distinction between subjective evaluations and opinions on the one hand, and “objective” conditions on the other, is far from easy to make. To some extent, all survey results based on interviewing are presentations of opinions,
Figure 1.1 Measures of living conditions
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as they portray what respondents believe to be the case. In some instances, we are more willing to consider those opinions as objective facts.
Living Conditions as Access to Resources and Participation
One way of proceeding is to accept that individuals evaluate situations differently, pursue different life projects, and do so with different access to resources. Given that two persons have the same access to the same resources, they exploit those resources according to their own aspirations. If the result is different levels of liv- ing conditions, society should hold the individual responsible for their own choice.
But society should also make efforts to provide equal access to fundamental resourc- es. We can accept that women choose lives that are different from men’s, but we should not accept that women have fewer opportunities for building their lives because they are not allowed access to education, to health, to cultural resources. It is normally agreed that all children have equal right to health and education, irre- spective of the wealth of their parents.
However, even if the access to resources is reasonably equal, we cannot im- pute all differences in outcomes to differences in choices. Resources must be invested like forms of capital in various markets or arenas to be transformed into quality of life. For example, through employment education is transformed into income and the material and social means of living. Such markets and arenas may function in a
Figure 1.2 Measures of living conditions
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way that creates entry barriers for some, as well as creating mechanisms for une- qual distribution of the “revenues” on the invested capital. It may not be sufficient for society to ensure that girls have equal access to education, if young women are marginalised in the labour market or receive less pay for the same work.
The living conditions tradition focuses our attention on resources and the characteristics of social arenas, as well as on how the respondents perceive their sit- uation and on what they get out of their various investments, choices and projects.
Such outcomes must form an important part of the analysis of living conditions. If we conceptualise the outcomes as various living conditions components, such as housing, political influence, education, income etc., they may be related in three different ways.
First, the various components of living conditions may be linked in a way that creates heaping or clustering. This means that poor conditions along one com- ponent may be systematically linked to poor conditions along another. We may imagine that poor education is linked with poor income and poverty, as well as with poor working conditions and poor health – or that all good things come together.
Second, living conditions components may be linked in a way to compen- sate for one another. Poor housing may be compensated by relatively low cost and better access to well-paying workplaces. Other people may have low initial educa- tion, but have stimulating work with good access to training.
Third, the components may be independent of each other and show no particular pattern of interaction.
In addition to these three points we may add a forth consideration, namely the strength of the differences among persons and groups. If differences are large, then heaping, compensation and independence become much more important considerations than if they are small.
For policy purposes, we are interested in all three relations between living condition components. We are interested in negative heaping where one liability tends to be linked with several others, thus adding to the total negative exposure.
Targeted policy measures are needed to address such pockets of highly exposed areas, or vulnerable groups. However, we are just as interested in the heaping of living conditions assets. Groups that exhibit positive heaping are building up human resources that may be exploited or serve as examples in development. If we can spot pockets of such rich assets that are under-utilised by society, this will be of interest for policy formulation.
The compensatory linking of living conditions components also gives im-
portant messages to policy makers, in that they provide information on the kinds
of strategies that people employ in order to cope with difficult situations. How a
given household exploits the range of resources it has in order to compensate for,
say, the income loss because a member of the household has fallen ill, may give
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insights into areas where a little help from public policy may make huge differences in the household’s ability to cope.
When living conditions components are distributed randomly in relation to each other, they also tell an important story to policy makers. The different com- ponents have to be considered as independent, and action with regard to one will not necessarily have effects on others.
The points we have raised here imply a definition of welfare or living con- ditions that centres around notions of human choice and human participation. We are mainly concerned with “the individual’s command over resources (...) by the help of which the individual can control and consciously direct his conditions of life”
(Titmus 1958). We are concerned with measuring the “degree to which people can participate in social, political and economical decision-making and can work crea- tively and productively to shape their own futures” (UNDP 1993).
Living Conditions Are Multifaceted
This discussion also leads us to another point: If living conditions tend to be or- dered, is there one dimension that dominates over the others? Or, can we expect that differences in access to economic resources determine all other distributions?
This is essentially a debate about the nature of poverty. We may think that poverty simply is a lack of income, and that this lack of income is at the bottom of the oth- er problems experienced by the poor. In that case a war on poverty should start with a battle over labour participation and participation in economic life – or by structural
Figure 1.3 Modules or dimensions of the living conditions survey
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adjustment. The appropriate policy would be to raise the general income level while at the same time trying to avoid reducing the income of any household.
On the other hand, we may think that poverty is multifaceted, that many factors combine to create the situation. If this is the case, there will be no single indicator that can “measure adequately all the dimensions of the hardship people in poverty face” (World Bank 1994: 3). Then, policy concerns would have to be directed at alleviating specific sector problems. To focus only on income gaps will not yield the desired results.
The living conditions tradition takes the latter stand as the starting point.
It refuses to assume that all dimensions may appropriately be reduced to one, and asserts that the interdependence or independence of living conditions liabilities is an empirical question, i.e. one that has to be tested. To do this, we need instruments that are able to measure the various dimensions and their correlations. Therefore, we design instruments that link indicators across sectors in order to search for heap- ing, for compensation and for independence. In this way the living conditions sur- vey acts as a valuable complement to sector surveys, because it can provide a view across sectors in addition to the depth that topical instruments provide into a giv- en sector. The living conditions survey can also provide a useful baseline to link the various indicators into a broad picture at a given point in time.
This approach has both strengths and weaknesses. One advantage is the potential for broad analysis, and the fact that economic measures become one set of factors among others. The living conditions tradition normally puts less effort into constructing a poverty line and into assessing in detail whether given house- holds fall below or above this line. We are less preoccupied with the prevalence and depth of poverty, than with the analysis of association between poverty and other kinds of hardship. Thus, we also become less dependent on exact measures of in- come and expenditure, and we leave this issue to special purpose surveys.
A disadvantage is the size of the survey that may be needed. We often wish to include too much in the same instruments. Eager to cover the whole range of indicators, we end up choosing between slim measures of each component or a huge questionnaire. This is the reason why it is essential to bring producers and users of the statistics together. In order to strike the best balance, we need to discuss the most important policy issues that we want to explore, so that we can prioritise more ef- ficiently.
Unit of Analysis
Let us now turn to the last point, namely what we should take as the unit of analysis.
We have so far mainly considered living conditions as they affect the individual.
We certainly can talk about the individual’s living conditions. On the other hand,
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if the only focus is the individual, we lose important dimensions. Many of our conditions of life are influenced by or mediated through the household or the family, through the neighbourhood or through social networks of which the individual is a member. The building standard of a house affects all the persons living in it.
Environmental problems like water shortages affect large segments of the popula- tion. When one family member loses his or her job, the burden affects the whole household, as the jobless will be dependent on the others. The family shares living conditions and the individual seldom makes life choices independent of her or his social bonds and obligations.
Therefore, it becomes natural to measure living conditions both on the in- dividual and on the household level. In some situations, however, to interview one representative of the household is enough, because this individual will tell us how the situation is for the whole household. We can ask the person to represent the household for some questions, and for others, we can ask more individually-ori- ented questions to the person.
Having presented the main concepts that guided the design of the Jordan Living Conditions Survey, we now turn to a description of how the project was implemented and how the concepts were transformed into a Jordanian project.
Implementation of the Survey: A Phased Marathon
Discussions on the project began in 1992 and the main contract was signed in Feb- ruary 1993. The project was approved by the Government of Jordan in a ministe- rial council meeting on 7 March 1993. In this meeting the Advisory Board – the ministerial committee which supervised the project execution, headed by the Min- ister of Planning – was also nominated. Implementation of the project started in 1994, when the funding was ensured in principle. During the second half of 1994, the Jordan Department of Statistics and Fafo defined the main parameters for the study, such as the statistical content, the sample design, the budget, schedule and organisation plan for survey. They also applied formally for the required funding.
The results of this work were summarised in a Survey Definition Report that was
presented to the Minister of Planning in January 1995 and formally agreed by the
partners on 1 April. Figure 1.4 shows how the different tasks of the project were
executed over time.
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Design of the Instruments: A Comprehensive and Participatory Process
The Department of Statistics and Fafo started the survey design in February 1995.
Dr. Abdelhadi Alawin, director general of DOS, assumed the role as the project’s national director and chaired a Technical Committee that consisted of members from several government and non-government organisations. The technical com- mittee provided insights, expertise and advice to the project concerning technical matters. In addition both DOS and Fafo visited and consulted a high number of institutions, experts and professionals all over Jordan to present the study and to take guidance and ideas to be incorporated into the survey design and implement - ation.
In practice, the technical committee had few meetings. The main occasions for consulting the committee, as well as the broader network of experts and insti- tutions, were two workshops organised during the project. The first of these work- shops was held in March 1995 to discuss survey design. Some 80 professionals and experts from Jordan participated in the two-day workshop. They reviewed the main principles and bases for the design, and provided detailed comments regarding content and methodology to each of the planned modules. The result was a com- prehensive set of suggestions about policy issues that are of importance for the de- velopment of the Jordanian society and about questions to be further elucidated by the survey. These ideas were integrated into the design of the questionnaires by the project team during a one-week intensive workshop in Oslo in April. The Oslo workshop resulted in a first draft of the Household, Person, and Women and Children questionnaires.
Figure 1.4 The JLCS schedule and main milestones
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The survey design was completed during 1995. The sample was prepared from June to August (see Appendix 1). The aim of the sample was to ensure representative- ness with a very cost-effective sample. In order to enable reporting for six major geographical areas in Jordan, referred to as reporting domains, 900 households of the total sample were allocated to each of these domains, except for Amman to which 1,500 were allocated. All in all the sample of approximately 6,000 households is fully representative for the country, but it requires weighting during the statistical analysis.
The draft questionnaires were discussed in detail by the project team in a series of workshops held in Amman over the summer and the autumn. The pur- pose was to adapt existing models to the Jordanian reality. The models used were the various Nordic living conditions surveys, as well as similar Fafo studies. Fafo had earlier made such surveys in different areas like the West Bank and Gaza (Heiberg and Øvensen 1993), in the Baltic (Hernes and Knudsen 1991, Aasland 1996) and in Russia (Hansen 1994). Particular efforts were taken to review the avail- able statistics and studies in Jordan and to adapt experience, models and results into the design of the JLCS. The questionnaires were prepared in English and then
Figure 1.5 JLCS: Six reporting domains
